Female Prostitution in Ancient Rome Extract (introduction) from the Master's degree essay in history (Université de Sherbrooke).  The original text is in French. The Full Record in the Canadian National Catalogue is also available. Author : Robert Radford, M.A. ©2000

Between -200 and 200, Rome has a territorial expansion as well as a drastic increase in its population - free and nonfree - making it the greatest Western Empire. Two thousand years ago, Roman Italy counts from five to six million free women, men and citizens. Moreover, between one and two million slaves are present on the territory¹, coming sometimes from far away, notably from minor Asia and Africa.

Roman Empire - 1 AD	Roman Empire - 100 AD	Roman Empire - 200 AD

In the early days of the Empire, the phenomenal increase in population makes the city of Rome the most populated agglomeration in the Ancient world. Le Glay, Voisin and Le Bohec consider reasonable the million inhabitants, but underline at the same time that no precise statistics can justify this estimative figure. At the time, Rome attracts individuals coming from remote regions, artists, intellectuals, various merchants as well as slaves, and the beauty of the city makes no doubt: " Rome se devait d’être la plus belle ville du monde. Auguste l’embellit à tel point qu’il se vante " de la laisser en marbre après l’avoir reçue en briques "². To tell the truth, no place in the world is more effervescent than Rome.

Parallel to an elite avid of luxury and pleasures, a majority of individuals live in the city of Rome and undergo a very hard life. Indeed, terrible events strike the city periodically: sporadic wars, epidemics of plague and malaria are frequent, the overflows of the Tiber and earthquakes ruin whole families. Only a small minority, some merchants, members of the nobility and those who hold some level of power (magistrates, municipal officials) succeed in living a good life. In the circumstances, the other individuals who form the majority of the population live a life that is often difficult and sometimes cruel.

The aim of this essay is to describe and analyze the geographical, economic, social, religious and legislative influence on female prostitution in Rome between the end of the second Punic War and the beginning of the reign of the Severi. We believe that prostitution has its importance in regard to these five specific realities and that its phenomenon in Rome should not be forgotten by history.

The first part, Geography of Prostitution in the Roman city, defines the environment as perceived by the Romans: we describe the various neighborhoods where prostitution is most present. Although prostitution is a reality of all times and all places, it is important to define the environment in which the action takes place most frequently, a bit like a detective during an investigation. Secondly, the Economic aspects of prostitution in Rome highlights how Roman prostitution of the time is a serious consumer market. This sexual economy is also based on a coherent management of the activities conducted by various individuals, merchants and masters, offering to clients prostitutes selected either for their quality in terms of beauty and talents, their origin or even for marketing reasons.

Our third section, Social aspects of prostitution in Rome, examines the impact of Roman morality on prostitution, as well as the influence of the prostitutes on their clients, particularly with respect to their art of manipulation. Our analysis will focus on the respect of Roman morality before the Second Punic War and the much more free, libertine, way of life that appears early in the second century BC. To demonstrate the fragility of Roman morality, it is necessary to compare two very different dimensions of the prostitution reality, being morally illicit and immoral but, at the same time, perfectly legitimate for others. For the Romans, prostitution is a necessary evil. Moreover, this ambivalent conception of the activity is frequently reported by Latin writers of the time. That being said, the usual prostitutes' strategy is to find the best lover, one that can become a love slave while bartering his riches in exchange for sexual services. Socially, this is a reversal of roles. In  Roman society - where social status is predominant - prostitution is a form of women liberalization that seems to contradict a Roman morality established for centuries.

Ironically, while the various laws, including licentia stupri, make prostitution legal, Roman morale remains restrictive;  thus, prostitutes are subject to a tough regulation that tolerates their activities. For its part, religion, which plays an equally important role (as significant as morality and the law), makes prostitution a sacred activity: number of cults and festivals (i.e.: the Nones caprotines and numerous spring festivals), as well as the nature of certain deities (i.e.: the worship of Isis), illustrate this fact. Thus, the last part of our essay, Religious and legal framing of Roman prostitution Roman, describes the framework of men and gods' justice on prostitution. However, our essay does not describe the various diseases associated with sexual activity at the time; such research is more relevant to medical history than to our socio-economic analysis.

Finally, our most important sources are the Latin authors, since they are the ones allowing us to highlight the multiple realities of the period (-200 to 200). To this end, you shall find in our essay multiple quotes from several of them, not wanting to limit ourselves to a single literary discourse. They also come from many backgrounds and different philosophies since we recognize that all the critical apparatus is not always enough to determine fiction from reality. Hence, the importance of using sources from several authors. Some of them are comoedia playwrights like Martial (40-104) and Plautus (254-184 BC.), stoics like Seneca (4-65), and even elegiacs such as Ovid (43-17 AD). Moreover, some authors are very close to the government and used to analyze the impact of prostitution at the highest levels of society: Horace (65-8 BC.) is a friend of Augustus and a protégé of Maecenas and Petronius (d. 65 AD) is a novelist and courtier who lived at the imperial court of Nero.

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VISUAL REFERENCES

ROME AND THE SEVEN HILLS (BLUE) In yellow: the Suburra area, where many prostitutes live and work Source: with the authorization of Christos Nüssli ©1999.   Rome (1st Century AD)  One sees, in the center of the map, the Roman Forum. The Tiber is blue and the red circle identifies the Aventine Hill, where the upper-class prostitutes engage in their art. Source: with the authorization of Christos Nüssli ©1999.   In blue, the Roman Forum, which is the political, social and economic central zone of the Roman city. Traffic is intense in this area and prostitutes flock around in order to attract passersby. In red, the Palatine hill, which exists since the eighth century BC. Under the Republic, it is an aristocratic quarter and, under the Empire, the emperors had their residence there. Source: with the authorization of Christos Nüssli ©1999   South of the Roman Forum, camped between the Palatine and the Capitol, the Velabro district (blue) witnesses a low-end prostitution. It must be said that prostitution in Suburra (red) is regarded - by Romans of the time - as better in terms of quality. The prostitutes are numerous, as they are guaranteed to find many individuals (citizens, customers, etc.) passing through to access the Forum. Source: with the authorization of Christos Nüssli ©1999   More closely, we see how the Roman Forum is important for citizens of the city: among other things, it contains religious and civic buildings in large numbers, and some imperial domains. This is the heart of the city. In blue, the Velabro district. Source: with the authorization of Christos Nüssli ©1999   By the end of the Republic, the Roman Forum is the city's main center of attraction. Political meetings, elections, voting laws, religious ceremonies and sacrifices are commonplace. On the map: the temples of Concord, Castor and Vesta, the Rostra, Lake Curtius and the Julienne and Emilienne basilicas. Source: with the authorization of Christos Nüssli ©1999

A Pompeii cemetery, such as those found in Republican and Imperial Rome. For some prostitutes, it is a lucrative hunting ground! Source: with the authorization of M. John Hauser.

 

A shopping street of Pompeii. It is along commercial streets such as this that dealers, prostitutes and their clients interact. Source: with the authorization of M. John Hauser.

 

Commercial establishments, photographed on a street in Pompeii. One can easily imagine the excitement that exists in such places of meetings and exchanges of all kinds. Source: with the authorization of M. John Hauser.

 

Approaching a Pompeii brothel... Source: with the authorization of M. Léo Curran ©1997.

 

A brothel in Pompeii and some cells. Source: with the authorization of M. Léo Curran ©1997.

 

Within a Pompeii commercial building. Note the staircase leading to the second floor and the opening that communicates with other parts on the right. Source: with the authorization of M. John Hauser.

 

Other photographic perspective of a commercial site of Pompeii. The entrance is practically on the street. Source: with the authorization of M. John Hauser.

 

Another photograph reveals the brothel. Source: with the authorization of M. Léo Curran ©1997.

 

Venus and Rome Temple. Source: with the authorization of M. Léo Curran ©1997.

 

Venus and Rome Temple. Source: with the authorization of M. Léo Curran ©1997.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

General Works

ARIÈS, Philippe et Georges DUBY (dir.). Histoire de la vie privée. De l’Empire romain à l’an mil. Vol. 1. Paris,    Seuil, 1985. 634 p.

DUBY, Georges et alii. Amour et sexualité en Occident. Paris, Seuil (Points Histoire), 1991. 341 p. Il s’agit d’un  recueil d’articles parus dans le magazine L’Histoire.

KEAVENEY, Raymond. Views of Rome. New York, Harper & Row, 1988. 304 p.

LEFKOWITZ, Mary R. et Maureen B. FANT. Women’s Life in Greece and Rome. London, Duckworth, 1982. 294 p.

LE GLAY, Marcel et alii. Histoire romaine. Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1991.  587 p.

PRESSOUYRE, Sylvia. Rome au fil du temps. Tours, Éd. Joël Cuénot, 1973. 1 v.

ROBERT, Jean-Noël. Eros romain. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1997. 392 p.

________________. Les plaisirs à Rome. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1983. 232 p.

SCHMIDT, Joël.  Dictionnaire de la mythologie grecque et romaine.  Paris, France Loisirs, 1993.  221 p.

Specialized Works

DALLAYRAC, Dominique. Dossier prostitution. Paris, R. Laffont, 1966. 316 p.

FAU, Guy. L’émancipation féminine dans la Rome antique. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1978. 218 p.

GRIMAL, Pierre. L’amour à Rome. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1979. 345 p.

JACOB, P.L. Les courtisanes de l’Ancienne Rome. Puiseaux, Pardès, 1988. 222 p.

KIEFER, Otto. Sexual Life in Ancient Rome. London, Routledge & Sons, 1934. 379 p.

KLOSSOWSKI, Pierre. Origines cultuelles et mythiques d’un certain comportement des dames romaines.  Montpellier, Ed. Fata Morgana, 1968. 78 p.

MARCADÉ, Jean. Études de sculptures et d’iconographie antiques. Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne, 1993. 570 p.

POMEROY, Sarah B. Goddesses, whores, wives and slaves. Women in Classical Antiquity. New York, Schocken  Books, 1975. 265 p.

SALLES, Catherine. Les Bas-fonds de l’Antiquité. Paris, Payot & Rivages, 1995. 259 p.

SANGER, William W. The History of Prostitution. New York, Arno Press, 1972 (1858). 685 p.

SCOTT, George Riley. A History of Prostitution from Antiquity to the Present Day. London, T. Werner Laurie Ltd.,  1976.  239 p.

VANOYEKE, Violaine. La prostitution en Grèce et à Rome. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1990. 169 p.

VEYNE, Paul. L’élégie érotique romaine : l’amour, la poésie et l’Occident. Paris, Seuil, 1983. 247 p.

Articles

FINLEY, M.I. " The Silent Women of Rome ", dans Horizon, no 7 (1965). Tuscaloosa, Horizon Publishers. pp. 57-64.

TREGGIARI, Susan. " Libertine Ladies ", dans Classical World, no 64 (1971). Pittsburgh, Classical Association of the Atlantic States. pp. 196-198.

Antiquity Sources

APULÉE. Les Métamorphoses. Tome III. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1956. 168 p. [Texte traduit par Paul Vallette].

HORACE. Satires. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1962. 214 p. [Texte traduit par François Villeneuve].

JUVÉNAL. Satires. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1964. 203 p. [Texte traduit par Pierre de Labriolle et François Villeneuve].

MARTIAL. Épigrammes. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1931. 3 vol. [Texte traduit par H. J. Izaac].

OVIDE. Ovid’s Fasti. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1959, 460 p. [Texte traduit par Sir James George Frazer].

PÉTRONE. Le Satiricon. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1962. 213 p. [Texte traduit par Alfred Ernout].

PLAUTE. Comédies. L’Asinaire ; Charançon ; Pseudolus. Paris, Hachette, 1923. 2 v. [Texte traduit par E. Sommer].

________. Comédies. Truculentus. T. VII. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1961. 203 p. [Texte traduit par Alfred Ernout].

SÉNÈQUE, le Philosophe. Des Bienfaits. Tome I. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1926. 141 p. [Texte traduit par François Préchac].

SUÉTONE. Les douze Césars. Caligula. Paris, Garnier, 1954. 2 v. [Texte traduit par Maurice Rat].

TACITE. Annales. Paris, Garnier Flammarion, 1965. 492 p. [Texte traduit par Henri Bornecque].

TERTULLIEN. Les Spectacles. Paris, Cerf, 1986, 365 p. [Texte traduit par Marie Turcan].

 

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Robert Radford's Online Articles © MCMXCVIII, MMXI   History Les grandes particularités de l’histoire comme champ d’étude Major features of History as a field of study La prostitution féminine dans la Rome antique (introduction) Essai de maîtrise en histoire (Université de Sherbrooke, 2000)   Female Prostitution in Ancient Rome (introduction, extract) Master's Essay in History (University of Sherbrooke, 2000)   Media History L’image au XIXe siècle : une diffusion intimement liée au développement social [English version is also available, translated by Google] L’image et la critique sociale : une longue tradition dans l’image fixe [English version is also available, translated by Google] L’image et l’appropriation du monde par l’Occident [English version is also available, translated by Google] Du daguerréotype au Kodacolor [English version is also available, translated by Google] Les avant-gardes artistiques en Europe : une nouvelle vision pour un monde nouveau [English version is also available, translated by Google] Photographie et mouvements réformistes : l’exemple américain [English version is also available, translated by Google] L’explosion télévisuelle et la multiplication des écoles théoriques [English version is also available, translated by Google] La satellisation médiatique de l’espace [English version is also available, translated by Google] La civilisation de l'image [English version is also available, translated by Google] Military History Obligations internationales du Canada en matière de défense [English version is also available, translated by Google] Pedagogy La pédagogie cognitiviste [English version is also available, translated by Google] Information Technology Les perspectives de la gestion de projets en technologie éducative [English version is also available, translated by Google] Enjeux sociétaux des technologies éducatives sur les PME québécoises entre 1960 et 1980 [English version is also available, translated by Google] Regard économique sur le Dossier santé électronique (DSÉ) du Québec [English version is also available, translated by Google] Comment inclure une image de fond à une seule page Word (format .doc) ? [English version is also available, translated by Google] Comment réduire Windows Live Mail et conserver son icône dans la barre du bas ? [English version is also available, translated by Google] Valeur estimée d'un site Internet What is your website worth?

 

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